Cultural Comparisons

The purpose of the study by Jackson-Allen, 1994 was to identify and compare the learning style preferences of low-achieving and high-achieving young African-American males. Measures of perceptual preferences for 22 learning modalities were obtained from a sample of 50 ninth- and tenth-grade students. Half of the students were randomly selected from a pool identified as low-achievers, and the other half from a pool identified as high-achievers. The pools were identified based on grade averages in core academic courses. The Dunn, Dunn, and Price Learning Style Inventory was administered to each of the two groups. Independent t-test comparisons of mean raw scores on each of the learning modalities yielded only three significant differences between low and high achievers. High-achievers had stronger preferences for motivation and were more parent motivated than low-achievers. Low-achievers, however, had stronger preferences for learning experiences that involve opportunities for mobility. From the results of this study, one might conclude that young African-American males who are identified as either low or high-achievers are more alike than they are different in their preferences for various learning modalities.

Dunn, et al. 1993 examined learning style characteristics of Mexican-American students (n=687) in grades 4 through 6 and compared results to those from 70,000 Anglo-American children. Compared to Anglo Americans, Mexican-American students preferred formal seating designs and were significantly more peer oriented. Sex differences also were found.

Ewing, 1993 compared learning style preferences among gifted African-American (n=54), Mexican-American (n=61), and American-born Chinese (n=40) middle grade students attending Chicago, Illinois, public schools. Significant ethnic, gender, and grade differences were found. All three groups preferred studying in the afternoon and bright light and did not prefer noise, structure, and authority figures.

Tseng, 1993 investigated the differences in learning styles among Chinese American, Anglo American and Hispanic American students in elementary third and fourth grades. Ninety students were randomly selected to complete the Learning Style Inventory by Dunn, Dunn and Price. There are some differences among the three ethnic groups. Discussion emphasized how the cultures influence the learning styles and how teachers and parents can apply the results of this research.

The primary focus of this study (Sanders, 1993) was to determine if student learning styles, as measured by the Learning Style Inventory, would influence achievement in mathematics and reading of students using an Integrated Learning System (ILS). The secondary purpose was to investigate the effects of an ILS upon achievement and the interaction of learning styles and demographic attributes which include gender, economic status, and ethnicity. Subjects for this study were fifth grade students from a Central Texas school district. Descriptive statistics and statistical analyses expressing means, standard deviations, adjusted means, and statistical significance (P <.05) were used to compare achievement. Statistical data are resultants of the 1991-92 norm-referenced assessment test for Texas. The following results were gleaned from this study:

1. In examining the sixty-two comparisons of adjusted means from the mathematics and reading parts of this study, the control and experimental groups had near equal results:
2. The sixty-two comparisons for statistical significance in this study indicated that only two groups from the reading part of the study, the control groups for auditory learners, who did not qualify for the federal government’s free or reduced lunch program and European American, auditory learners, achieved statistical significance:
3. In six of the seven comparison groups which performed the best with an ILS as a supplement to traditional instruction, haptic learners were involved. All four of the comparison groups which performed the best with an ILS as a supplement to traditional mathematics instruction were haptic groups. Two of the three comparison groups which performed the best with an ILS as a supplement to traditional reading instruction were Hispanic groups:
4. In three of the five comparison groups which performed the best with traditional mathematical instruction, visual learners were involved. In the other two comparisons which performed the best with traditional mathematical instruction, Hispanic learners were involved. In four of the comparison groups which performed the best with traditional reading instruction, auditory learners were involved.

Lo (1994) investigated the learning style differences among gifted, regular classroom, and resource room/remedial program students in grades 3 to 6 in Taiwan, and their relations to gender and grade. A total of 660 students from six elementary schools in Taipei were administered the Chinese Learning Style Inventory (Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1989). Four hundred students (120 gifted, 160 regular classroom, and 120 remedial program Students), with equal number of female and male students in each grade, were selected from a total of 592 students who had valid LSI data and met the IQ criteria. Both descriptive and inferential statistical analysis were used in this study. The number and frequency of students’ learning style preference on the 22 elements of the LSI were used to determine if Chinese students have learning style preference(s). Then a three-way analysis of variance (Group x Gender x Grade), Tukey’s post hoc comparisons, and a stepwise discriminant analysis were used to examine group, gender, and grade differences on learning styles.

The findings indicated significant main effects of group difference on 11 LSI elements, significant main effects of gender difference on 5 LSI elements, and significant main effects of grade difference on 14 LSI elements. In addition, interactions were also found on 8 LSI elements. The discriminant analysis revealed that 9 LSI elements significantly discriminated among the three groups, and overall, 61.25% of the subjects were classified in their groups with accuracy. In general, there are more learning style differences between remedial program students and gifted or regular classroom students than between gifted and regular classroom students; female students are more self-motivated, more persistent, and more responsible than male students; and the student’s learning experiences may be more influential than genetics in determining the development of learning styles.

Hong et al. (1995) examined whether changes in children’s learning styles can occur from cultural, social, and environmental changes within an ethnic group using Learning Style Inventory scores from a sample of 49 Korean-American 10-14 yr olds (20 boys and 29 girls) and 146 Korean 11-13 yr olds (78 boys and 68 girls). Similarities as well as differences in learning styles were found between the 2 nationalities and between boys and girls in both groups. Those learning styles on which differences were significant might have been influenced by the social and environmental differences found between Korea and the United States. The pattern of preferred learning styles for Korean-American subjects tended to be similar to that reported for students in the U.S., indicating that the Korean-American subjects had become acculturated and their learning styles became close to the learning style pattern of students in the U.S.

Hickson (1994) explored learning style differences in ethnic populations and ways to accommodate these differences to enhance student success. Thirty-six Asian, 47 Hispanic, 78 African-American, and 58 European American 4th-6th graders completed the Learning Styles Inventory. Results showed that 12 variables on that instrument reliably discriminated among the 4 ethnic groups. These variables were Design, Requires Intake, Late Morning, Noise Level, Kinesthetic, Responsible, Parent Figure Motivated, Authority Figures Present, Temperature, Afternoon, Auditory, and Visual. Recommendations were made for adapting the environment to accommodate students according to their preferred learning styles.

Ewing et al. (1992) examined whether significant group, gender, and grade differences existed in the preferred learning styles of gifted minority 6th-8th graders. Fifty four African-American (20 males, 34 females), 61 Mexican-American (26 males, 35 females), and 40 Chinese-American (25 males, 15 females) students completed the Learning Style Inventory. Significant gender differences were found in preferences for tactile, and intake modality. All 3 ethnic groups were responsible and motivated. African-American subjects preferred a visual modality and studying in the afternoon. Mexican-Americans preferred a kinesthetic modality. Chinese-Americans reported the strongest preference for the visual modality of the 3 groups.

The purpose of the study, Jacobs (1987) was to determine whether a difference existed in the learning style of Afro-American high, average, and low achievers and to compare the learning styles of Afro-American and Euro-American high, average, and low achievers.

The sample included 300 students from three middle schools in the south. The local school district uses the Achievement Series of the Comprehensive Assessment Program Test to sort students according to achievement levels. The Learning Style Inventory was administered to ascertain individual learning style characteristics. Chi-square was utilized to analyze the data. Analysis of the data revealed that there are differences in learning styles according to achievement level, sex, and race:

1. African-American high achievers had strong preferences for teacher motivation; African-American average achievers had strong preferences for auditory learning; African-American low achievers had a strong preference for persistence:
2. More African-American male high achievers preferred less structure than did female average and low achievers; more African-American male low achievers preferred authority figures present while learning than did female achievers:
3. More European-American high achievers preferred auditory learning, while European-American average achievers were teacher motivated and European-American low achievers were less persistent:
4. More European-American male high and average achievers preferred sound; European-American male low achievers were less persistent than European-American female achievers. European-American female high achievers were more teacher motivated than their male counterparts:
5. More European-Americans displayed a strong preference for bright lights while learning comp ared to African-Americans. African-Americans were more teacher motivated and European-Americans were less teacher motivated:
6. More European-American high achievers had a strong preference for auditory learning, while African-American high achievers expressed a strong preference for teacher motivation. African-American average achievers exhibited a strong preference for structure, while European-American average achievers expressed less preference for structure. African-American low achievers were more persistent than European-American low achievers.
7. This study verifies that students prefer to learn in ways that are personally unique to each individual student.

Williams (1989) investigated learning style preferences of urban African-American middle school students. The preferred learning style of urban African-American middle school learning disabled (LD) and non-learning disabled (LD) students was studie d. Also, the learning styles of urban African-American middle school LD and non-LD male and female students were described. Methods and procedures. The sample used in the study was composed of 86 urban African-American middle school students. The subjects consisted of 43 learning disabled (LD) and 43 non-learning disabled (LD) students, from grades six, seven, and eight. The Learning Style Inventory (LSI) was the instrument used to measure learning style. The LSI was administered to subjects using the auditory tape method and LSI answer sheets. The answer sheets were collected from subjects and mailed to Price Systems, Inc., in Lawrence, Kansas, for computerized scoring and printed profile sheets for individual subjects’ learning styles. Also, a profile sheet containing a group summary of the subjects’ learning styles was given.

Findings. The multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), was used to analyze the learning style of subjects in the study. Large percentages of subjects, as a group, did not show learning style preferences. In the LSI, however, statistically significant differences were found between the LD and non-LD subjects on the ‘light’ and ‘intake’ preferences. Statistically significant differences were evident between LD and non-LD male and female subjects on the ‘noise’, ‘light’, ‘responsible’ and ‘tactile’ LSI preferences. Conclusions. The findings contribute to the body of research regarding the learning style of black children. The learning styles of the African-American children are heterogeneous. Therefore, educational programs should be designed to meet each child’s individual learning style needs. Educators should consider research concerning the learning style of African-American children, in order to effectively and successfully teach these children.

A three-way analysis of variance revealed significant differences among gifted African-American, Mexican-American and American-born Chinese students in preferences for noise, light, visual modality, studying in the afternoon, and persistence. Signi ficant gender differences were found in preferences for tactile modality and intake. Significant grade differences were found in preferences for temperature and mobility. Discriminant function analysis revealed that the six preferences that significantly discriminated among the three ethnic groups were studying in the afternoon, visual modality, noise, light, intake, and persistence. Multiple regression analysis revealed that preference for temperature was significantly predicted by gender and grade. A jack-knife-classification showed that the cases correctly classified into groups was 62.58%. Findings of the Yong (1991) study support and extend past research regarding the learning styles of gifted students. They render support for the provision of differentiated curricula for gifted minority students.